Elliq Qala: The Desert Fortresses of Khorezm
How to visit Khorezm's desert fortresses from Khiva: Toprak Kala, Ayaz Kala and Kyzyl Kala, with their history, distances, tour costs and yurt stays.
Around 1,800 years ago, a king of Khorezm held court in a palace with painted halls and three tall towers, in a city walled off from the desert. Today the palace is a grid of eroded mud-brick rooms on a hill called Toprak Kala, and you can walk through it with nobody else in sight. It's about 60 kilometres from Khiva.
Toprak Kala is one of dozens of ruined fortresses scattered across the north bank of the Amu Darya, in what's now Karakalpakstan. Locals call the area Elliq Qala, "fifty fortresses". Most visitors to Khiva never go. It's worth changing that: the fortresses are the oldest thing you'll see on a trip to Uzbekistan, and the empty landscape around them is half the experience.
Who built them, and why
Khorezm was an independent kingdom long before the Arabs, the Mongols or the khans of Khiva. Its wealth came from irrigation. Canals from the Amu Darya turned the edge of the Kyzylkum desert into farmland, and the fortresses protected that farmland and the trade routes that crossed it.
The oldest date back to the last centuries BC; the grandest belong to the first centuries AD, when Khorezm was at its most powerful. Most were abandoned when the rivers shifted and the canals failed. The desert moved back in, which is why they've survived: nobody reused the bricks.
Soviet archaeologist Sergey Tolstov led the Khorezm expedition that excavated many of them, starting in 1938. Uzbekistan's national tourism site has a useful summary of Toprak Kala and what the excavations found. The best finds, including statues and wall paintings from Toprak Kala, are now in the Hermitage in Saint Petersburg. The group of sites is on Uzbekistan's tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage status, under the name "Desert Castles of Ancient Khorezm".
The three you should see
Toprak Kala: the royal city
Toprak Kala was the residence of the kings of Khorezm in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, and in the 3rd century it served as the kingdom's capital. The palace is thought to have stood three storeys high, with around 150 rooms. The city was a walled rectangle, and its northwest corner rose into a raised palace. Excavators found halls decorated with wall paintings and sculpted figures, including rooms that have become known as the Hall of Kings and the Harpist's Hall.
What you see today is the palace platform, with the outlines of rooms, corridors and staircases still clear in the eroded walls. Climb to the top and you can trace the plan of the palace below you and the line of the city walls beyond. There are no signs to speak of and no crowds.
Ayaz Kala: three forts on a ridge
Ayaz Kala is the most dramatic of the group, and it's actually three fortresses. The biggest, Ayaz Kala 1, stands on a hill about 60 metres above the surrounding desert, with outer walls up to 10 metres high. Ayaz Kala 2, on a lower hill, is much later, completed between the 5th and 7th centuries AD. Ayaz Kala 3 was a garrison fort on the flat ground below. Dates for the oldest fort vary by source: Uzbekistan's official tourism site gives the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, while some archaeologists place it a little earlier, around the end of the 4th century BC.
The climb to the top fort takes 10 to 15 minutes on a loose, sandy path. From the walls you look across salt flats and dunes to the horizon in every direction, and in late afternoon the light turns the mud-brick walls orange. It's the best view on any day trip from Khiva.
Kyzyl Kala: the restored one
Kyzyl Kala is a compact square fort from the 1st to 4th centuries AD, about a kilometre from Toprak Kala. It was rebuilt in the 12th century and has been partly restored in recent years. Its thick, tall walls give you a better sense than any other site of what these fortresses looked like when they were complete. It takes 20 minutes to see.
Others, if you have more time
A longer day, or a second one, can include:
- Koy Krylgan Kala, further east of Toprak Kala: an unusual round fortress-temple thought to have been used for astronomical observations and rituals.
- Janbas Kala: a rectangular fortress with high, well-preserved walls, often visited alongside Koy Krylgan Kala.
- Guldursun Kala: a large fortress closer to the town of Beruniy, with a later, medieval history.
These are rougher to reach and not all drivers know them. Ask when you book.
Why a river decided their fate
Stand on any of these walls and you'll see sand and scrub. It's hard to believe this was once one of the richest farming regions in Central Asia. The explanation is the Amu Darya, which has changed course several times over the last few thousand years, swinging between flowing into the Aral Sea and, at times, sending water west towards the Caspian.
Each time the river moved, the canals that fed a district dried up, and the towns and forts that depended on them were left stranded. That's why the fortresses cluster in bands: each band marks an old line of irrigation. It's also why so many were never rebuilt. There was simply no water to come back to.
The same story is still playing out a few hundred kilometres north. The Aral Sea shrank in the 20th century because the Amu Darya's water was diverted to grow cotton. Seen together, the fortresses and the ship graveyard at Moynaq tell one long story about water in this desert.
Photographing the fortresses
The mud-brick walls are pale and flat in the midday sun, and glow orange in the first and last hours of the day. If you're on a day trip, ask your driver to reverse the usual order and end at Ayaz Kala in the late afternoon. From the top fort, the lower fort and the yurt camp make a good foreground, with salt flats beyond.
At Toprak Kala, the best view of the palace rooms is from the highest point of the platform, looking down into the grid. A wide lens helps. Drones need a licence in Uzbekistan, and flying one here without permission isn't worth the risk.
How to get there
There's no public transport to any of the fortresses. You need a car and a driver.
| Site | Approx. distance from Khiva | Time needed on site |
|---|---|---|
| Toprak Kala | 60 km | 45–60 min |
| Kyzyl Kala | next to Toprak Kala | 20 min |
| Ayaz Kala | 100 km | 1–1.5 hours |
| Koy Krylgan and Janbas Kala | further east, add 1.5–2 hours | 30 min each |
A standard day trip from Khiva covers Toprak Kala, Kyzyl Kala and Ayaz Kala. It takes five to seven hours, including three to four hours of driving across the Amu Darya bridge and through the cotton fields. Private tours are widely sold in Khiva and online, starting from around $40 per person for a small group, with prices per car higher for private trips (last checked: September 2026). Entrance tickets at each fortress are usually extra, and small.
You can also see the fortresses on the road between Bukhara and Khiva, if you hire a car for that journey instead of taking the train. Our Bukhara to Khiva transport guide explains how that works and what it costs.
Staying overnight in a yurt
Below Ayaz Kala there's a yurt camp, and a night there changes the trip completely. You see the fortress at sunset and again at sunrise, when the desert is at its most beautiful and the day-trippers haven't arrived. Dinner is simple home cooking, the stars are extraordinary, and some camps offer short camel rides.
Facilities are basic: shared bathrooms, limited electricity and cold nights, even in summer. Book through your Khiva guesthouse or directly with the camp, and bring a warm layer. If you're choosing between this and a yurt stay elsewhere, our Aydarkul yurt camp guide describes the other main option in the Kyzylkum.
When to go, and what to bring
Spring (April to May) and autumn (September to October) are best. In July and August the desert regularly passes 40°C, and there's no shade at any of the sites. If you go in summer, leave Khiva at 7am and be back by early afternoon.
Bring plenty of water, a hat, sunscreen and shoes with grip for the sandy climbs. There are no shops or cafés at the fortresses, although the yurt camp at Ayaz Kala serves lunch to day visitors. Bring small notes in som for the entrance fees.
Planning the rest of your time in the area? Our Khiva travel guide covers the walled city, where to stay and how many days you need. The fortresses make the best possible third day.
Frequently Asked Questions
Which fortress is the best if I only have time for one?
Ayaz Kala. It has the most dramatic position, the widest views and the most intact walls of the main group. Toprak Kala is historically more important, but it looks less impressive to someone without a guide. If you can manage two, do both.
Can you visit the fortresses without a guide?
Yes. A driver who knows the route is essential, but a guide is optional. There are few signs, though, so reading up beforehand or hiring an English-speaking guide in Khiva adds a lot, especially at Toprak Kala, where the layout of the palace isn't obvious.
Are the fortresses in Karakalpakstan or Khorezm?
Most of the main sites are in Karakalpakstan, the autonomous republic just across the Amu Darya from Khiva. Historically they belonged to ancient Khorezm, which is why they're called the fortresses of Khorezm. No extra permits are needed to cross into Karakalpakstan.
How old are the Khorezm fortresses?
They range widely. The oldest part of Ayaz Kala dates to roughly the 3rd century BC (sources differ by a century or so), while Toprak Kala was the royal seat in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Some sites, like Kyzyl Kala, were rebuilt and reused as late as the 12th century.
Is a day trip from Khiva enough?
For the three main fortresses, yes. If you want to add Koy Krylgan Kala and Janbas Kala, or see Ayaz Kala at sunset and sunrise, stay a night at the yurt camp. That also breaks up the heat and the long drive.
Featured image: Bernard Gagnon (CC0) via Wikimedia Commons.